While land inequity and low productivity are longstanding constraints, climate change and water scarcity have emerged as the most acute and growing threat to Pakistan's food security. Pakistan is among the world's most water-stressed nations (per capita water availability has fallen below 1,000 m³ — the scarcity threshold). Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), irregular monsoons, and rising temperatures threaten both crop yields and irrigation supplies in the Indus Basin.