• Hypercoagulable states
• Inadequate anticoagulation
• Low blood flow rates
• High hematocrit

• High filter/transmembrane pressure alarms
• Reduced or absent effluent output
• Dark color of blood in circuit
• Frequent circuit 'down' time

• Regional citrate anticoagulation (RCA): First-line anticoagulation in CRRT (KDIGO 2012)
• Systemic heparin infusion (if no bleeding risk)
• Maintain blood flow rate \(\geq 150-200 \text{ mL/min}\)
• Predilution mode (dilutes blood before filter)

Plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA elements that replicate independently; the chromosome does not depend on them. They carry non-essential genes (e.g., antibiotic resistance).

Separate variables: $\frac{dy}{y+1} = -\frac{\cos x}{2+\sin x}dx$

Integrate: $\ln|y+1| = -\ln|2+\sin x| + C$

So $(y+1)(2+\sin x) = K$

At $x=0, y=1$: $(1+1)(2+0) = K \Rightarrow K = 4$

Thus $y+1 = \frac{4}{2+\sin x}$, so $y = \frac{4}{2+\sin x} - 1$

At $x = \frac{\pi}{2}$: $y = \frac{4}{2+1} - 1 = \frac{4}{3} - 1 = \mathbf{\frac{1}{3}}$

Marginal Costing (also called variable costing) explicitly separates costs into fixed and variable components. Only variable costs are charged to products; fixed costs are treated as period costs. In Absorption Costing, both fixed and variable overheads are absorbed into product costs without explicit separation. Standard Costing focuses on pre-set cost benchmarks. Direct Costing is essentially another name for marginal/variable costing, but Marginal Costing is the most precise and standard term here.