The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy (ΔU) of a system undergoing a process is equal to the heat transfer (Q) into the system plus the work done (W) on the system.

In a closed-loop control system, feedback from the controlled variable is continuously compared to the desired setpoint, and adjustments to the manipulated variable are made to maintain the desired process conditions.

In diffusion, the driving force for mass transfer is the concentration gradient of the species in the mixture, causing molecules to move from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration.

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter used to characterize the flow behavior of a fluid, distinguishing between laminar and turbulent flow regimes based on the fluid velocity, density, viscosity, and characteristic length.

According to Le Chatelier's principle, increasing the temperature of an exothermic reaction will shift the equilibrium towards the reactants, resulting in a decrease in the equilibrium conversion.