The Enlightenment promoted ideas of reason, individual rights, and skepticism of traditional authority, which influenced the development of constitutional governments and democratic principles. While not all monarchies were overthrown, the Enlightenment's ideas had a lasting impact on political thought and institutions.

The Treaty of Versailles led to the creation of the League of Nations, an international organization intended to maintain peace and prevent future conflicts. However, the treaty also imposed heavy reparations on Germany, contributing to economic hardship and political instability.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen established principles of equality and individual rights, challenging the traditional authority of the monarchy and the Church by promoting secularism and the idea that sovereignty resided with the people.

The Industrial Revolution led to the rise of a new social class, the industrial working class, who often labored under harsh conditions with minimal pay. This period also saw significant urbanization and changes in the social fabric of Europe.

The Peace of Westphalia is widely recognized for establishing the concept of state sovereignty, laying the groundwork for the modern international system where states are the primary actors and non-intervention in domestic affairs is a key principle.

While the Church did own significant amounts of land, it was not the majority of Europe's agricultural land. The Church's influence stemmed more from its spiritual authority, wealth, education, and political power.